Abbreviations / acronyms
For example: PM stand for “prime minister.” PTO stands for “please turn over.”
Adjectives
Adjectives describe nouns.
For example: He is a tall man. Tall describes man.
The adjective always precedes the noun.
Adjectives and prepositions
Adjectives are typically followed by specific prepositions. Different prepositions can change an adjective’s meaning dramatically.
e.g. I am sorry about that. (I am sorry / apologetic about something I did wrong.)
I am sorry for him. (I feel sad / I have pity when I think about his bad situation
Adverbs
Adverbs describe verbs.
For example: he drove the car. How did he drive the car? He drove the car badly.
“Badly” is an example of an adverb. Typically, adverbs are made by adding the suffix
-ly to an adjective (bad / badly, happy / happily) but there are a number of exceptions to this rule.
Advice
Giving advice. Saying to someone: “I think it is a good idea for you to do this.”
We often say the following when giving advice:
- You should do this.
- Why don’t you do this?
- If I were you, I’d do this.
- You’d better do this.
Agreeing/disagreeing
Expressions which will help you to say if you agree or disagree with statements other people make. E.g. “I agree!” Or, “I’m not too sure about that.”
Asking for permission
Polite ways of asking someone if it is OK for you to do something.
For example: May I have another? Could I sit here, please?
There are many different ways of asking for permission.
Asking for things
Expressions which will help you to ask for things in shops and many other situations. E.g. “Can I have a cheese sandwich please?”
Auxiliary verb 'do'
“Do” is typically used in questions. However, it sometimes has other uses. For example, it can be used in short answers. (Do you like football? Yes, I do.) Alternatively, it can be used to emphasise things. E.g. I don’t like rugby but I do like football. Explore uses of “do” here.
Auxiliary verbs
Auxiliary verbs are “helping” verbs. They are used to ask questions, make negative sentences etc. “Do” is a good example of an auxiliary verb. “Do you like football?” “Do” has no meaning – it just shows us it’s a question. Find out about auxiliary verbs here.
Banks
Typical expressions and vocabulary used in banks.
Be in questions
When the verb to be is used in questions we don’t use the auxiliary verb do / did.
e.g. Are you ok? (NOT: do you be OK?)
Business
Typical expressions and vocabulary used in formal business situations.
Can / can’t
This is a modal verb which is used to express ability / inability (I can play the piano / I can’t play the trombone.)
Can is used to ask for permission – even though it is technically incorrect. (Can I have another one?)
Can’t shows impossibility. (It can’t be him.)
Cars
Typical expressions and vocabulary used when talking about / buying / hiring / fixing cars.
Clarification
Expressions which you can use when you don’t understand something and would like it to be explained to you again to make it clearer.
For example: “I’m sorry – could you repeat that?”
Classroom language
Expressions and vocabulary which will be useful to you in educational situations.
Clothes
Expressions and vocabulary which will help you buy, or talk about, clothes.
Coffee shops
Expressions and vocabulary which will be useful to you in Starbucks or similar places which sell tea and coffee.
Colloquial expressions
Expressions and vocabulary which are informal and not “standard English” but which are commonly used in every-day speech.
Comparatives
Structures which are used to compare one thing with another. For example: as big as a .... / bigger than a... / more beautiful than a...
Computers
Expressions and vocabulary which will help you to talk about computers
Conjugating the third person singular
The third person singular is he / she / it. To conjugate this correctly in present tense sentences we need to add an S to the verb in affirmative sentences – e.g. I go / he goes. I run / she runs. I live / it lives.
In negative sentences we use don’t / doesn’t + the infinitive. E.g. I don’t go / he doesn’t go. I don’t run / she doesn’t run. I don’t live / she doesn’t live.
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word which links words, phrases or clauses. For example: for, and, nor, because, or, yet (and) so.
Contractions
Lots of words are contracted in English. We use an apostrophe to do this, which shows there are missing letters. E.g. I do not = I don’t. I will = I’ll. She would = she’d. There are many, many different examples of this.
Cooking
Words and expressions which are useful for talking about working in the kitchen / preparing food etc.
Could
Could is a modal verb. It has four uses.
- It is the past tense of can. “He can sing” – present. “He could sing” – past. This shows ability.
- It is used to show possibility. “It could be raining.” (It is possibly raining.)
- It is used to ask for permission. “Could I sit here, please?”
- It is used for polite requests. “Could you help me, please?”
Countable nouns
You can count some things and you can’t count other things. For example, we can have one cat, two cats, three cats etc. We can count cats!
However – we can’t count water, for example. We can’t say one water, two waters.
We can count glasses of water, though, because we can count glasses. One glass of water, two glasses of water etc.
Cat is a countable noun. Water is an uncountable noun.
Crime
Expressions and vocabulary related to illegal acts – that is, anything criminal.
Criticisms
Expressions and vocabulary which will help you be critical of others in a tactful way – for example, telling someone that you don’t like what they are wearing without being rude or hurting that person’s feelings.
Decisions
Expressions and vocabulary which will help you make decisions / be decisive, often as a result of group discussions.
Declining help
How to politely say “no” if someone offers to help you.
Descriptions
The use of adjectives to describe something / say what something (or someone) is like. E.g. It’s a big, beautiful, tall, pink house.
Desires
How to talk about, or express, things that you want. E.g. I want a... / I’d like a ... / I wouldn’t mind a... etc.
Did in questions
Did is used to ask questions in the past tense. It has no intrinsic meaning. It just shows that the sentence is (a) a question and (b) in the simple past tense.
e.g. What did you do last night?
The structure is: did + subject + infinitive + ?
Directions
Asking for and giving directions in a strange town: for example – “Can you tell me where the nearest supermarket is, please?” “Yes: turn right at the lights, take the second on the left and it’s opposite the cinema.”
Do in affirmative sentences
Do can be used in affirmative sentences in the present tense. It is used for emphasis.
For example: I don’t like coffee but I do like tea.”
Do in questions
Do is used to ask questions in the present tense. It has no intrinsic meaning. It just shows that the sentence is (a) a question and (b) in the simple present tense.
e.g. What do you do?
The structure is: do + subject + infinitive + ?
Do/did for emphasis
Normally, do / did are used for questions. However, sometimes they can be used to emphasise something: for example, “I don’t like football but I do like rugby.” Find out about this here.
Do/make
Do and make are quite similar in many ways and are often translated as the same verb in other languages. Find out how to use them correctly here.
Ellipsis
Sentences in which the subject (and sometimes the verb / article) is omitted. For example: “Nice day today, isn’t it?” (It is a nice day today, isn’t it?) Or: “What did you do last night?” “Went to the cinema.” (I went to the cinema.)
These are typically only used in colloquial / informal speech.
Emergencies
Expressions and vocabulary you can use if you need to call the police / fire brigade / ambulance etc.
Emphasis
Sometimes we want to be emphatic about something – that is, to emphasise something. We can use do / did for emphasis – e.g. I don’t like coffee but I do like tea.” Find many examples of emphasis here.
Ending conversations
Expressions which you can use for (tactfully / politely) ending conversations with people. For example, “Well, I’d better be off, actually. I’ll give you a ring in a day or two...”
English Essentials
This is designed for beginners. Use it as background practice to your English course.
If you've used Linguagum in the past, you'll be familiar with this one.
English Essentials 2
Back by popular demand! Use it as background practice to your English course.
If you've used Linguagum in the past, you'll be familiar with this one.
Enough
“Enough” means “sufficient” or “sufficiently.”
Structures:
- Adjective + enough
- Enough + noun
It’s not big enough (It’s too small / it’s not sufficiently big.)
I don’t have enough money (I have too little money / I don’t have sufficient money.)
Note: The pronunciation of “enough” is different to its spelling!
Ever
Ever is typically used in the present-perfect structure: Have / has + pronoun + ever + past participle.
e.g. Have you ever been to Australia?
This means: Have you (at any unspecified time in your life) been to Australia?
Exclamations
We use exclamations to show that we are surprised, shocked or excited.
E.g. That’s amazing! How awful! That’s fantastic!
When writing, we use an exclamation mark (!) to express this. Exclamations are usually short – only two or three words.
Excuses
Knowing how to make excuses can be useful – for example if you are late to work, what do you say to your boss to explain why you are late? An example might be: “Sorry I’m late – the traffic was murder.” Find more expressions like this here.
Exggeration
We exaggerate a lot in English: for example, “that’s absolutely brilliant!” This, in reality, just means, “That’s very good.” Find out more forms of exaggeration here.
Expressing doubt
Different ways to say that you don't think something is true.
Expressions
Examples of expressions that may not be immediately obvious, such as "I'm on a roll."
Expressions with have
There are many expressions with “have”: have a cup of tea. Have a break. Have a look at something. Find more expressions using “have” here.
Feelings
Expressions and vocabulary you can use to express your moods / feelings / emotions – that is, to say if you are happy / sad / excited / upset / angry etc.
First conditional
The structure: If + present tense + will / going to / may / might + verb.
e.g. If it is sunny tomorrow I will go to the beach.
It is possible that it will be sunny tomorrow. It is also possible that it will rain. However, if it is sunny I will go to the beach (if + present tense + future.)
We don’t have to use will in this structure: any form of the future tense is acceptable here – although each one has a slightly different meaning!
Food
Expressions and vocabulary you can use to talk about all kinds of food, cooking and restaurants.
Frequency adverbs
Adverbs describe verbs. For example: I sing. How do I sing? I sing well.
Frequency adverbs are similar, but they describe verbs in terms of how often we do things: e.g. I often go to the cinema (three times a week.) I rarely go to the beach (once every two years.) I sometimes go to the zoo (two or three times a year.) I never go to the swimming pool (not even once a decade!)
Future "going to"
Structure: Subject + to be + going to + infinitive.
e.g. I + am + going to + wash (the car.)
(I’m going to wash the car.)
We use this structure to talk about future plans.
I’ve already decided to wash the car because it’s dirty: it’s now a plan that I will wash the car in the (possibly, but not necessarily, near) future.
Future "may"
May is a modal verb. The structure for modal verbs is: may + infinitive (without “to”.)
We can use may to express the present tense or the future tense. As the future tense, it means: “will possibly.”
e.g. “I may go to France on holiday this year – I still haven’t decided.”
Future "might"
Might is a modal verb. The structure for modal verbs is: might + infinitive (without “to”.)
We can use might to express the present tense or the future tense. As the future tense, it means: “will possibly.”
e.g. “I might go out this evening or I might stay in: I still haven’t decided.”
Future "present continuous"
The present continuous (also called the present progressive) can be used to express future intentions.
Structure: subject + to be + verb + ing
e.g. I’m playing football tomorrow.
Usually, the present continuous is used for things that are happening right now: however, if the action is a concrete plan for the future then we can use it as the future tense too.
“I’m playing football tomorrow” means, for example, “I have arranged with my friends to meet in the park at 2.00 pm tomorrow afternoon to play football.”
Future "present simple"
We can use the present simple tense to show future events if they are timetabled.
For example: The train arrives at 6.00 pm tomorrow. / The plane gets in at midnight tonight.
Future "will"
Will is the most common form of the future tense.
The structure is: subject + will + infinitive.
e.g. I will take you to the station. It is usually contracted to I’ll (take you to the station.)
You will – you’ll. He will – he’ll. It will – it’ll. We will – we’ll. They will – they’ll.
Will is used to:
- Make predictions: “He’ll be forty next week.”
- Express spontaneous decisions: “I’ll pay.”
Future continuous
Structure: subject + will + be + verb + ing
e.g. I will be working all day tomorrow.
It shows a long, continuous action in the future. (I will be working continuously for 8 hours tomorrow.)
Future perfect
Structure: subject + will + have + past participle
e.g. In a month I will have been working here for a year.
I have been working here for 11 months. In a month I will have been working here for 12 months.
Future questions
Will is the most common form of the future tense.
The structure is: subject + will + infinitive.
e.g. You will be forty tomorrow.
When we make a question we must reverse the subject and will.
e.g. Will you be forty tomorrow?
Gerunds
Gerunds are formed like this: verb + ing.
Go + ing = going. Sing + ing = singing.
They are used in continuous tenses: “I am singing.” They are also used when a verb is the subject or object of a sentence.
Singing is enjoyable. (Singing is the subject.)
I like singing. (Singing is the object.)
The -ing ending turns a verb into a noun – and the subject / object of a sentence must be a noun.
Get
“Get” has many uses: it is often used with prepositions to make individual verbs – get in, get on, get out, get up to, etc. It can also be used in the passive voice: I need to get the car fixed, for example. It can mean: buy, fetch, arrive, obtain and many other things. Find out about the uses of “get” here.
Go + verb + ing
This structure is used for talking about certain activities. For example:
To go shopping. To go walking. I went windsurfing last year. It is not used with every activity!
Greetings
Different ways of saying “hello / how are you?” to people.
Had better
This means the same as should. It suggests that something is a good idea / is the right thing to do.
e.g. You had better stop smoking. (You should stop smoking / it is a good idea to stop smoking.)
It is generally contracted to: You’d better... / I’d better / he’d better etc.
Have got
This means the same as have. “I have a cat / I have got a cat.” It means the same. It’s usually contracted to “I’ve got / you’ve got / he’s got etc.)
Have got in questions
Have got means the same as have. I have got a car / I have a car - it means the same.
However, when we make a question with “have got,” have is the auxiliary verb – the “helping” verb which shows that the sentence is a question, and we reverse the word order: “Have you got a car?”
e.g. Have you got a car? (Not: do you have got...?)
Have to
This means the same as must. It shows obligation. “I have to go to the bank.” It means: “it is necessary for me to go to the bank / I must go.”
Hotels
Expressions and vocabulary which will be useful to you whenstaying in hotels.
Houses
Words and expressions which are useful when talking about houses.
How in questions
How can be used to preface questions beginning with do / can etc.
e.g. How do you do this?
How can you do that?
It modifies the question by asking for a description of the way in which an action is performed.
Imperatives
Imperatives are orders. You are telling someone to do something. Imperatives are very direct and often impolite.
The structure is: Infinitive without to – “Stop! Come here! Do this!”
Or, for negative imperatives the structure is: Don’t + infinitive – “Don’t stop! Don’t come here! Don’t do that!”
Imprecise quantities
These are expressions which talk vaguely about quantities and numbers – for example, several, a few, a number of, a couple of etc. “Several” is not a precise number – it could be five or six, for example.
Indefinite article
The indefinite article is a / an.
A + noun beginning with a consonant. A banana.
An + noun beginning with a vowel. An orange.
Information on Britain
Cultural information about Britain – things you may not know but which are common knowledge there.
Intentions
Different ways of expressing what you plan to do in the future.
Interviews
Words and expressions which you will find useful if you go for a job interview – that is, a meeting with a prospective employer.
Introductions
Words and expressions which are useful when introducing someone to others – for example: “Allow me to introduce you to Peter...”
Irregular plural nouns
Typically, when we make a plural we just add S. E.g. one cat, two cats. However, sometimes there are exceptions: one woman, two women. One man, two men. One sheep, two sheep. Find more irregular nouns here.
Irregular verbs
Irregular verbs do not follow the same rules as regular verbs.
A regular verb, such as to paint, is conjugated like this: paint (present) painted (past) painted (past participle).
However, many verbs are different (irregular): e.g. Sing (present) sang (past) sung (past participle).
Jokes
Jokes are funny stories. Find examples of English jokes here.
Just
Just has several meanings.
- Fair / right / honest.
- Only. E.g. I just want a cat – I don’t want a dog. (I only want a cat, not a dog.)
- It is used with the present perfect tense: I have just returned from Australia. (I returned half an hour ago / last night – the recent past.)
Keep
The verb keep basically means maintain / continue. It is often used with prepositions and adverbs e.g. – keep up / keep out / keep away. It has lots of uses and is often used colloquially in phrasal verbs. You will find many of its uses here.
Keep + verb + ing
The structure keep + verb + ing means “continue doing something.”
E.g. Keep working! (Continue working.)
He keeps getting into trouble.” (He continually / often / regularly gets into trouble.)
Lending / borrowing
Lending and borrowing - often confused, sometimes even by English people.
Let’s + infinitive
Let’s is used for making strong suggestions. E.g. Let’s go to the cinema.
Likes/Dislikes
Different ways of saying what you like and what you don’t like: I love going to the cinema. I detest going to the supermarket. Etc.
Make
Find expressions which use the verb “make” here. E.g. Make the bed, make a cup of tea, make a row, etc.
May
May is a modal verb used for: 1. Asking for permission. (May I have another one, please?) 2. Talking about possibilities in the present or future. (I may go to the zoo tomorrow (I will possibly go) / he may be asleep (He is possibly asleep.)
Measurements
Words used to talk about size, weight and volume: e.g. Pounds / kilos. Centimetres / inches. Pints / litres. (Remember that in Britain, some people still use the old, “imperial” measurement system of pounds / inches / pints etc.)
Medical
Words and expressions to talk about health. Also, useful sentences if you have to go to the doctor’s in Britain.
Might
Might is a modal verb which means possibly. It can be used in either the present or future tense.
E.g. He might be asleep (he is possibly asleep.)
I might go to America next week. (I will possibly go.)
Modal verbs
Might / may / shall / will / can / could / should / would / etc. These all have very particular uses and meanings and they are very common in English.
The structure: modal verb + infinitive without to.
E.g. I must go. He may be asleep. We could do that.
Modal verbs + present perfect
When we use modal verbs (might / may / can’t / could / should / would / etc.) in the past tense the structure is: modal verb + present perfect tense / modal verb + have + past participle.)
e.g. He may have arrived. (It is possible that he arrived.)
Money
Words and expressions you can use to talk about money.
Must
Must is a modal verb. It is used for obligations. “I must go.” (It is necessary for me to go.)
Need
“Need” can be used with an infinitive – I need to go. Or with a gerund – it needs fixing. Or with a passive – it needs to be fixed. Find out about these uses here.
Need + gerund
Structure: subject + verb + ing.
E.g. The house needs painting.
This is a form of the passive voice. We are not saying: “Jim needs to paint the house.” We are talking about the house – not the painter. It is unimportant who paints the house.
Need + to be + past participle
For example: The house needs to be painted.
This is a form of the passive voice. We are not saying: “Jim needs to paint the house.” We are talking about the house – not the painter. It is unimportant who paints the house.
News
Words and expressions useful for talking about the news / understanding the news / reading the newspaper.
Numbers
An explanation of how to say numbers correctly – e.g one million, two-hundred and fifty-two thousand, three hundred and twenty two point three three. (1,252,322.33).
Offering help
How to offer help to someone else.
One word - two meanings
Sometimes the same word can have two meanings: for example, fast. This can mean “quick” or “secure.” Nouns, verbs and adjectives can all have multiple meanings.
Opinions
Learn how to say what your point of view is / express your opinion here. E.g. “In my opinion I think we should…”
Passive voice
This is used when the person performing an action is not important.
The structure is: to be + past participle.
For example: coffee is grown in South America.
The focus of the sentence / what we are talking about is coffee – not South Americans! Alternatively, we could say “some South Americans grow coffee,” but then the focus of the sentence is on some South Americans – and not coffee.
Passive voice (future)
The passive voice is used when the person performing an action is not important.
The structure in the future tense is: subject + will / may / might + to be + past participle.
E.g. “The wedding reception will be held at the Hilton.” We are talking about the wedding reception. We are not talking about the people who are going to hold the reception.
We can also use the structure: subject + to be going to + be + past participle.
E.g. “I think the meeting’s going to be cancelled.”
Passive voice (get)
The passive voice is used when the person performing an action is not important.
The structure with get is: subject + get + past participle.
e.g. The car got fixed. (Someone fixed the car.)
Passive voice (past)
The passive voice is used when the person performing an action is not important.
The structure in the past tense is: subject + was / were + past participle.
e.g. Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
Of course, we could say: “Shakespeare wrote Hamlet,” but then the focus of the sentence is on Shakespeare, and not on the play he wrote.
Passive voice (questions)
The passive voice is used when the person performing an action is not important.
The structure is: to be + past participle.
e.g. Coffee is grown in South America.
What’s important is coffee, not South Americans.
To make a question, we reverse the subject and the verb to be.
Is coffee grown in South America?
Passive voice with present perfect
The passive voice is used when the person performing an action is not important.
When using the present perfect tense, the structure is: subject + have been + past participle.
E.g. The house has been painted. (We are not interested in who painted the house or when it was painted.)
Passport control
Words and expressions you will hear and can use when you arrive at the airport in Britain and have to show your passport to an official.
Past continuous questions
The past continuous / past progressive shows long, continuous actions in the past and is structured like this: subject + to be + verb + ing.
e.g. I was walking in the park.
To make a question, we reverse the subject and the verb to be.
e.g. Was I walking in the park?
Past continuous tense
The past continuous (also called the past progressive) shows long, continuous actions in the past and is structured like this: subject + to be + verb + ing.
e.g. He was playing football yesterday evening.
They were walking in the park yesterday afternoon.
Past continuous versus simple past
The past continuous (also called the past progressive) shows long, continuous actions in the past and is structured like this: subject + to be + verb + ing.
e.g. I was walking in the park.
We can use the simple past in conjunction with the past continuous to show an interruption to the continuous action.
E.g. I was walking (long action) in the park when I saw (in one moment) a squirrel.
Past perfect
The structure: subject + had + past participle.
This shows an action in the past which happened before another action in the past.
e.g. 1. It started raining. 2. I got up.
When I got up it had started raining. (It started raining before I got up.)
Past simple questions
We ask questions in the past tense like this: did + subject + infinitive
e.g. Did you watch the match last night?
With the verb to be, the structure is different: was/were + subject + ...
e.g. Were you at home last night?
Past simple tense
This is the basic past tense.
I went to the shops yesterday. I bought a car last year. I painted the living room last week.
It shows finished actions in finished time. (Yesterday / last year / last week are all finished.
Personal Information
Words and expressions which are useful in giving information about yourself to others.
Phrasal verbs
These are verbs which, with a preposition, have a particular meaning – often different to the verb itself.
e.g. To pick up. Literally, take something (with your hand) which is on the floor. However, you can also pick up a language – that is, learn it without formally studying it.
There are many phrasal verbs in English and you can find a lot of examples of them in this category.
Politeness
Different ways of making sure that what you say is polite so that you don’t accidentally offend people. Examples of words which make sentences polite are “may I...? / could you...? I’d like a..., please.”
Possession / possessive pronouns
Possession talks about ownership. For example: my car. His cat. Their house. We can also use an apostrophe to show possession: John’s coat. Peter’s house. Learn about possession and possessive pronouns here.
Post office
Sentences and vocabulary which you will find useful if you want to send a parcel / letter home from England.
Prefixes
Examples of prefixes: preschool / prenatal / premature. The prefix pre means before.
Co-owner / cooperate / cosign. The prefix co means together / jointly.
Preposition and gerund
If a verb follows a preposition (by / with / without / after etc.) it must be a gerund – that is, verb + ing.
e.g. He learned it by practising hard every day.
After eating, he felt very tired.
Prepositions
These are words such as: by / with / without / after / before / on / upon / under / at / to etc.
Present continuous questions
e.g. What are you doing? We are asking about a continuous, long action which is happening right now.
The structure for a question is: to be + subject + verb + ing
“What are you doing (now)?” “I am watching television.”
Is it raining (at this moment)? “No, it isn’t raining – it’s snowing.”
Present continuous tense
This is also called the present progressive tense.
Structure: subject + to be + verb + ing
This structure is used for things which are happening at the moment. For example, it is raining. I am talking. We are watching television. These are long, continuous actions which are happening right now.
Present perfect continuous
Structure: subject + have + been + verb + ing
This is a past tense which shows a continuous action in the past which has recently finished.
e.g. I have been working on the car. (I started an hour ago and I finished 5 minutes ago.)
Present perfect continuous questions
The present perfect continuous is a past tense which shows a continuous action in the past which has recently finished.
The structure is: subject + have + been + verb + ing
e.g. I have been working on the car. (I started an hour ago and I finished 5 minutes ago.)
To make this a question we need to reverse the subject and have.
Have + subject + been + verb + ing
e.g. Have you been working on the car?
Present perfect questions
The present perfect is a past tense which is used for finished actions in unfinished time. “I have been to Australia” (at some time in my life – it is unimportant when I went there.)
It is also used to show an action which started in the past and which is still continuing. E.g. “I have been here for two hours.” I came here two hours ago and I am still here.
The structure is: subject + have + past participle.
When we make it a question, we change the word order:
Have + subject + past participle
Have you been to Australia?
Have you been here long?
Present perfect tense
Subject + have + past participle. E.g. “I have been to Australia.”
This is a past tense which is used for finished actions in unfinished time. I have been to Australia (at some time in my life – it is unimportant when I went there.)
It is also used to show an action which started in the past and is still continuing. E.g. “I have been here for two hours.” I came here two hours ago and I am still here.
Present progressive passive
- Present progressive: subject + is / are + verb + ing
- Passive: to be + past participle
- Together: subject + is/are + being + past participle
- E.g. The cinema is being built right now.
- We are more interested in the action of the cinema being built than the people building it.
- Present tense changes to past tense: “I am cold.” He said that he was cold.
- Past tense changes to past perfect tense: “I went to Australia.” He said that he’d been to Australia.
- Will changes to would. “I’ll wash the car.” He said that he would wash the car.
- It means “as a consequence.” (I had no money so I went to the bank. So + verb.)
- To show something excessive / emphatic which leads to another action. (I was so tired I had to go to bed. So + adjective.)
- As a colloquial expression meaning “very.” (He is so mean!)
- You would – you’d.
- He would – he’d.
- She would – she’d.
- It would – it’d.
- We would – we’d.
- They would – they’d.
Probability
How probable is something? 100% certain? 50% possible? 10% possible? Impossible? Find out how to talk about probability here.
Public transport
Typical expressions and vocabulary used when travelling by bus, train, taxi etc.
Punctuation
Learn about commas, full stops, exclamation marks, question marks, hyphens inverted commas etc. here. (, . ! ? – “” )
Questions
To make a question we use a question mark (?). The structure of a question is always different to an affirmative / negative sentence. We sometimes use do / did to show it’s a question: E.g. I live in London. Do you live in London? (Present) Did you live in London? (Past). The word order changes: I live / do you live?
With the verb to be, we don’t use the auxiliary verb do – but we still change the word order: You are 30. Are you 30?
It’s the same with modal verbs: e.g. I can sing. Can you sing?
Quite
Quite + adjective. E.g. It’s quite cold. It’s not very cold. (0º C). It’s only a little cold. (5º C).
Reflexive pronouns
Myself / yourself / himself / herself / itself / ourselves / themselves
For example: Jim washes himself. What / who does Jim wash? Jim washes Jim! This sounds silly: Jim is the subject and the object of this sentence. So, we use the reflexive pronoun himself. I wash myself / you wash yourself / they wash themselves etc.
Reflexive pronouns can also be used to emphasise that something is done solely by one individual. E.g. I painted the house myself. (Nobody helped me.)
Regular verbs
Regular verbs are the ones which follow this rule: add -ed to the present tense to make the simple past and the past participle.
e.g. paint / painted / painted. Walk / walked / walked
Renting a flat
Expressions and vocabulary which will help you to rent a flat or house if you go to live in England.
Reported speech
This is saying what someone else said – that is, reporting what another person said.
e.g. He said that he was cold. (He said, “I am cold.”)
In reported speech we must follow these rules:
Requests
Making requests: asking for things. E.g. Can I have a drink? May I sit here? Could I have another? Etc.
Restaurants
Words and expressions you might find useful when eating in restaurants.
Routines
A routine is something we do regularly and repeatedly (for example, I always get up at six-thirty on a workday.
Rude Expressions
These are expressions which are not very polite. You don’t have to use them but it’s good to at least understand them!
Second conditional
Structure: if + subject +“past tense” + would / might / may / could + infinitive.
e.g. If I had a million pounds I would live in the Bahamas.
Had is not really the past tense. It’s a subjunctive which shows that the sentence is only hypothetical. The reality is that I don’t have a million pounds... but in my dreams, if I had a million pounds, I would...
You can use different modal verbs (would / might etc.) in this structure – they have different meanings.
Sequencing
How to say what was first, second, third, next etc. in a series of events: e.g., First I went to the bank, second, I bought a newspaper, next I caught the bus, then I … etc.
Sequencing (a formal speech)
Sequencing (a formal speech)This is a way of giving structure to a series of sentences: first, second, next, in addition etc. You don’t have to use these only in a formal speech – they are useful in any situation.
Shall
Shall is a modal verb which is used to make suggestions and ask for opinions: e.g. “shall we go out tonight?” “What shall we do this evening?” It is also used for making offers: “Shall I make you a cup of tea?” It is only used with the pronouns I and we.
Shopping
Words and expressions which you will find useful in shops.
Short answers
e.g. Do you like football? Yes I do. (Short for “yes, I like football.)
Did he go to the bank? Yes, he did. (Yes, he went to the bank.)
Can you sing? Yes, I can. (Yes, I can sing.)
Are you Peter? Yes, I am. (Yes, I am Peter.)
Short questions
These are follow-up questions to statements, usually showing surprise or interest.
E.g. “He doesn’t live in London.” “Doesn’t he?”
“He can’t drive.” “Can’t he?”
“He won’t be coming.” “Won’t he?”
Should
Should is a modal verb which expresses mild obligation / something which is a good idea.
E.g. You should stop smoking because it’s bad for your health. (It’s a good idea to stop smoking.)
Simple past versus present perfect
Simple past: I went / he sang / they ran / it rained.
Present perfect: I have gone / he has sung / they have run / it has rained.
The simple past is used for finished actions in finished time: I went to the bank yesterday / He sang in the choir ten years ago.
The present perfect is different: it shows finished actions in unfinished time or time which is unimportant.
For example: I have lived in London for two years. (I came here two years ago and I am still here – the time is unfinished.)
He has gone to America. (It is unimportant when he went.)
Simple present tense
Simple present: I go / you sing / we work.
This is used to show habitual actions and things which are generally true.
e.g. I live in London. (True / habitual action.) It rains a lot in England. (True.) I get up at 6.00 every day. (Habitual action.)
Small talk
“Small talk” is an expression meaning “polite, trivial conversation.” For example at a party or when meeting new colleagues at work it is common to say inconsequential, polite things to try and start conversation / get to know someone. This is called “making small talk.”
So
Some / any
Some is a plural indefinite article used in affirmative sentences: “I have some money.”
Any is a plural indefinite article used in negative sentences and questions: “I don’t have any money. Do you have any money?”
Spoken contractions
Contractions made when speaking which are typically not written.
Sport
Words and expressions about sport
Starting conversations
Different ways of starting conversations. Has something in common with small talk.
Strange pronunciations
Sometimes words are spelled in a totally different way to how they sound. For example, “women.” The O is pronounced as an I.
Studying
Words and expressions about studying
Subjunctives
Subjunctives are used to show that we are talking about a hypothetical situation. Very often, subjunctives are the same form as the simple past tense.
e.g. If I had more time (I would learn to play the piano.)
Had looks like the past tense but it’s really a subjunctive. The truth is that you have very little time / you are very busy. You hypothesise / dream the following: “If I had more time...” But you don’t have enough time to do what you are dreaming / hypothesising about.
Such
E.g. It’s such a nice day I’m going to the beach. Such + (adjective) + noun.
As a consequence of it being a (very) nice day, I’m going to the beach.
Suffixes
Suffixes are additions to words which are placed at the end of the word and which modify its meaning or usage.
E.g. Beauty / beautiful. -Ful is a suffix. In this example it turns a noun into an adjective.
Suggestions
To make suggestions we often use the following words and structures:
Shall we...(+ present tense)...?
Why don’t we (+ present tense)...?
How about (+ verb + ing)?
What about (+ verb + ing)?
Superlatives
To make superlatives we add either “the most” or “the -est” to an adjective.
e.g. The most beautiful ...
The nicest...
If the adjective has one syllable, we add the suffix “-est.”
If the adjective has three or more syllables, we say “the most + adjective.”
If the adjective has two syllables, it depends – you can often use either.
Tact
Tact is a noun. The adjective is tactful. To be tactful means to say something in a way which won’t hurting someone’s feelings.
Tag questions
Tag questions (or question tags) are short questions which are added at the end of an affirmative or negative sentence.
e.g. You don’t live here, do you?
He can come, can’t he?
If the sentence is negative, the question is positive. If the sentence is positive, the question is negative. The intonation of a tag question is important and can change its meaning.
Technology
Technology refers to anything related to computers, mobile phones and other every-day, modern electronic items.
Telephones
Language and communications-related vocabulary commonly used during telephone calls.
There is / there are
These are used to talk about items which are present in a location.
There is: used for singular items (there is a car) and things which we cannot count – e.g. There is some sugar / there is some money.
There are: used for multiple, countable items: there are three cars / there are some people.
Think + preposition
Different prepositions alter the meaning of the verb to think: e.g. think about, think something over, think something up, think something through etc. Find out the different meanings here.
Third conditional
Structure: if + past perfect tense + modal (would / could / might etc.) + present perfect tense.
Past perfect: had + past participle.
Present perfect: have + past participle.
e.g. If I had studied harder I could have gone to Oxford University..
This is a completely hypothetical / impossible past conditional. The truth is that I didn’t study hard and I didn’t go to Oxford University. However, if I had studied harder I could...
Time
Expressions which will help you talk about the time – “what time is it?” “What’s the time?” etc.
To be + preposition
The verb to be is very often used with a preposition to make very distinct expressions: e.g. to be into something means to really be interested in something. To be out of something means to have used something – e.g. I’m out of cigarettes – I’ve smoked them all. Find more expressions like that here.
Too / too much / too many
These words are used to talk about anything which is excessive.
The structures:
1. Too + adjective.
2. Too much + uncountable noun.
3. Too many + countable nouns.
e.g. That’s too bad! (That’s excessively bad.)
There’s too much sugar in this. (There’s an excessive quantity of sugar.)
There are too many people in here. (There is an excessive number of people.)
Tourism
Words and expressions which will help you when travelling in English-speaking countries
Uncountable nouns
Things which you can’t count: e.g. Sugar / water / tea.
You can’t say “two waters.” You can say “two glasses of water” – because glasses are things which you can count.
Used to
This is a past-tense form. It is used for habitual actions in the past which are not true now.
E.g. I used to live in England. (For many years. Now I Live in America.)
The structure: subject + used to + infinitive (without to.)
For negative sentences the structure is: subject + didn’t use to + infinitive.
E.g. I didn’t use to live in America (but I live there now.)
Uses of take
The verb “take” can be used in many different ways – as phrasal verbs – e.g. to take to something – or in set expressions, like “take your turn.” Find more uses of “take” here.
Uses of turn
The verb “turn” can be used in many different ways – as phrasal verbs – e.g. turn out the lights. Caterpillars turn into butterflies. Sometimes it can be a noun: “take your turn!” Find more uses of “turn” here.
Verb + gerund
Sometimes if a verb follows another verb, we must use the gerund form (-ing.)
For example: I enjoy singing.
Find more examples of this here.
Verb + infinitive
Sometimes when a verb follows another verb, we must use the infinitive form.
For example: I want to play football.
Find more examples of this here.
Verb + preposition
Sometimes particular prepositions are used with particular verbs.
For example: to look into means to investigate. There are many examples of this in English.
Verb as noun
Very often a verb can also be a noun.
E.g. I run. (Verb) I went for a run. (Noun). Find more examples of this here.
Verb as subject/object
Waiting for explanation
Weather
Words and expressions which will help you talk about the weather – if it is sunny / raining / snowing etc.
What / who / which as the subject of a question
When what / who / which is the subject of a question we do not use the auxiliary verb do / did.
For example: who wrote Hamlet? (Not: who did write Hamlet?)
What in questions
What can be used to preface questions beginning with do / can etc.
e.g. What do you do? What can you see?
It is asking for specific information – not just a “yes” or “no” answer.
When what is the subject of a question we do not use the auxiliary verb do / did.
For example: What happened here? (Not: what did happen here?)
Where in questions
Where can be used to preface questions beginning with do / can etc.
e.g. Where do you live? Where can you rent cars around here? Etc.
It is asking for specific information – not just a “yes” or “no” answer.
Which in questions
Which can be used to preface questions beginning with do / can etc.
e.g. Which do you like? Which can I have?
It is asking for specific information – not just a “yes” or “no” answer.
We use “which” when selecting from a limited number of choices: e.g. “which do you like – the red one or the blue one?”
When which is the subject of a question we do not use the auxiliary verb do / did.
For example: Which one lives in London? (Not: which one does live in London?)
Who - contractions in questions
It’s possible to say, for example:
Who has done this?
It’s also possible to make the contraction:
Who’s done this? There are many other contractions, too.
Who in questions
Who can be used to preface questions beginning with do / can etc., when it is not the subject of the question.
e.g. Who do you know? Who can you see?
When who is the subject of a question we do not use the auxiliary verb do / did.
For example: who wrote Hamlet? (Not who did write Hamlet?)
Word order
This category looks at sentence structure – the order in which you need to place words in a sentence.
Would
Would is a modal verb. It is often used in conditional sentences: if I had a million pounds I would (definitely) live in the Bahamas.
It is used in structures like “I would (I’d) like ...” which is a polite way of saying “I want...”
It is used in reported speech: “I will pay.” He said that he would pay.
Would like
This is similar to saying want. It’s more polite than want, though.
The structure is: subject + would like + infinitive
e.g. I would like to visit Switzerland. He would like to buy a new car.
Or: subject + would like + noun
e.g. I would like a glass of champagne.
We often use a contraction with this structure: I’d like / you’d like / he’d like etc.
Would rather
This is used to show preferences.
The structure is: subject + would rather + infinitive.
“What would you rather do – go to the cinema or the theatre?” (What would you prefer to do / what is your preference?)
“I’d (I would) rather go to the theatre.” (My preference is to go to the theatre.)
I would is usually contracted to I’d.
Yet
This is used in conjunction with the present perfect tense (have + past participle).
For example: Have you finished yet? He hasn’t arrived yet.
Yet shows that we expect the action to either be completed now or to be completed soon.
With the example “he hasn’t arrived yet,” we are expecting him to arrive any moment now.
Zero conditional
Example: If you heat water, it boils.
This is used to show scientific truths.
The structure is: if + present tense + present tense.